Enabling layer: family environments for capability formation.

The second layer supports the development of children’s capabilities – the set of doings and beings an individual has command on - within the family environment, translating early gains into sustained outcomes. Education systems play a central role, particularly when aligned with family contexts. Early childhood care and education (ECCE) interventions enhance early development, while foundational skills programs improve literacy and help children who have fallen behind close learning gaps. Teacher training and curriculum reforms strengthen reading outcomes, and school improvement interventions enhance overall learning quality. Integrated educational approaches increase enrolment, attendance, and literacy, with additional benefits including reduced child labour and improved cognitive development. Context-specific adaptations further improve effectiveness by aligning with local needs. WASH interventions contribute to the health and functioning of family environments. Community-led approaches increase latrine access and reduce open defecation, while behaviour change campaigns improve sanitation practices. Infrastructure investments expand access to facilities. However, evidence shows that improvements in sanitation do not always translate directly into better child health outcomes, highlighting the need for integration with nutrition and health interventions. This layer demonstrates that family environments are the primary setting through which capabilities are developed, and that policy effectiveness depends on reinforcing conditions within the household.